The misconception that terrorism is a modern problem is quite common in contemporary thought. However, it has a long and complex history that has evolved ideologies, forms, and motivations over time, changing alongside political, social, and technological advances. The term terrorism was first coined during the French Revolution, specifically in 1790, and implied an act of violence employed by the State against its domestic enemies.
Currently, there is no universally agreed-upon definition of terrorism, but the United Nations (UN) considers multiple approaches, one of which includes, “[A]cts intended or calculated to provoke a state of terror in the general public…for political purposes are in any circumstance unjustifiable, whatever the considerations of a political, philosophical, ideological, racial, ethnic, religious or any other nature that may be invoked to justify them”. In essence, the idea remains the same. Terrorism is the threat of violence aimed at instilling fear into the broader public for political, ideological, or religious gains.
Historical Evolution of Terrorism
As brought up earlier, the term for terrorism was introduced during the French Revolution when the revolutionary government committed mass executions to suppress dissent. However, this practice can be traced back to a period long before that. In the 1st century CE, a radical Jewish sect called the Secarii conducted targeted assassinations against Roman and Jewish collaborators in Judea to liberate their country from foreign rule. Similarly, in the 11th and 13th centuries, the Nizari Ismailis, a Shia sect, used political assassinations to weaken governmental powers that opposed them. In these examples, the echoes of what constitutes modern-day terrorism are audible. Even today, terror attacks are perpetuated by an organisation often as symbolic acts of violence to further goals that benefit their respective ideologies.
Historically, terrorism has been used as a reactionary act against foreign oppression on indigenous land. Such cases can especially be found in Palestine (the Lehi), Lebanon, and Kenya. The mid-20th century experienced several instances where terrorism was utilised within decolonisation. By the late 20th and early 21st centuries, organised terrorist groups such as Al-Qaeda and ISIS had arisen, promoting a jihadist agenda, demonstrating that terrorism was no longer confined locally and had gone beyond regional and transnational borders. It is important to note here that the aims and practices of these groups are not supported by Islamic teachings or Muslim-majority countries.
Ideological and Political Factors Behind Terrorism
Numerous instances of terrorism are linked to nationalism. It is driven by the desire for independence, autonomy, or opposition to illegitimate powers operating on one’s native land. Nationalist movements often resort to terrorist acts, such as suicide bombings, to compensate for their lack of military strength. National terrorists also call themselves “freedom fighters”. However, it is not as straightforward as it appears. Terrorist groups can accuse anyone they oppose of being oppressors and may harm civilians, immigrants, and even locals to accomplish their aims. This undermines the overall prosperity of the state and hinders economic progress. In the case of Pakistan, the group Fitna al Hindustan employs such tactics to solidify its influence in Balochistan and advocates for separatism.
The most common ideology linked to terrorism is religious extremism. In modern times, secular terrorism has decreased, while religious terrorism has become more frequent. Religious terrorism can be viewed as a form of political violence driven by an absolute belief in an otherworldly deity who has authorised the use of violence for a higher purpose. Any violent acts carried out in the name of this cause are not only forgiven but also rewarded in the afterlife. The use of violence is justified as long as it is seen as an expression of the deity’s will.
The question may arise here: how were the Crusades different from acts of religious terrorism today? This query also highlights that religious extremism is not unique to Islamist groups, and both Hindu and Christian groups have been responsible for similar attacks in the past. To answer the question, the Crusades were state-authorised warfare that sought conquest over territory through conventional war. At the same time, religious terrorism is illegal, asymmetrical violence by non-state actors against civilians to promote fear and further ideological objectives. In addition, this form of terrorism uses violence indiscriminately, considering those martyred as essential for the greater good.
Political Motivations
Political motivation can also be a cause of terrorism. In cases of state-backed repression, violence, and exclusion, terrorism may seem like the only option for resistance. Terrorist movements that emerge from such conditions gain legitimacy by portraying themselves as defenders of oppressed or marginalised people. The key point here is the asymmetric power dynamic. Acts of terrorism enable these groups to generate more fear than their limited militant strength would suggest. This advantage has made terrorism a preferred tactic by rebel groups throughout history.
Conclusion
It is important to understand the historical context behind terrorism and realise that it is not a uniquely modern phenomenon but one that has been used for thousands of years to support a myriad of differing ideologies. It is especially crucial to grasp that terrorist ideologies are not uniquely tied to Islam or any other specific ideology or region. By gaining a nuanced perspective on terrorism and its underlying drivers, individuals can better understand the grievances and motivated strategies that fuel it and form informed opinions. Thus, instead of focusing solely on reactive measures, it is also crucial to address the underlying causes of terrorism.
References:
Jenkins, J. P., & The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2025, May 15). Terrorism. In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved July 8, 2025
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. (2018, July). Counter‑Terrorism Module 4: Defining terrorism. Education for Justice Initiative. Retrieved July 8, 2025
Piwowarski, J. (2015). Three pillars of security culture. Kultura Bezpieczeństwa. Nauka – Praktyka – Refleksje, 19, 34–44.
Daftary, F. (2016, February 23). Islamic State and the Assassins: Reviving fanciful tales of the medieval Orient. The Conversation. Retrieved July 8, 2025
Cordesman, A. H. (n.d.). Islam and the patterns in terrorism and violent extremism. Center for Strategic and International Studies. Retrieved July 8, 2025
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