Radicalization is the process through which individuals and groups come to adopt extremist beliefs and ideologies that may potentially lead to violence. After the events of 9/11, there was a bias in how radicalization was understood, with the definition being associated with Islamist Jihadist beliefs. An extreme stance on any thought is enough to make someone be seen as radical, yet after 2001, it became synonymous with Islamist terrorism. The US used this narrative to shape public discourse and foreign policy, showcasing a criminalisation of a certain belief system and Islamophobia. It is essential to understand these subtleties before examining the article’s analysis of the factors that contribute to radicalization in Pakistan.
Pakistan has faced a long-standing struggle with terrorism. Terrorism is closely linked to religious radicalization in the country, which is a significant cause of violent extremism. While many factors contribute to terrorism, such as economic hardship, ideological issues, and geopolitical influences, religious radicalization remains the most significant threat to the nation. In Pakistan, radicalization is a complex phenomenon arising from multiple interconnected factors, including structural and cultural mechanisms that have influenced public awareness over the years.
Historical Context
Pakistan gained Independence under the banner of Islam. Before Partition, the Muslim League fought for a separate nation with the belief that Muslims needed a separate homeland to practice their faith safely. Once Pakistan came into being, the people and parties who wanted Islamization were confronted with a small, cosmopolitan Muslim elite that believed in Secularism. When the promises of an Islamic state were not met with reality, it pushed individuals into believing that it was their responsibility to enforce their beliefs. Therefore, the first step of radicalization in Pakistan could be traced back to the advent of its creation. This was witnessed in the tribal led Jihad in Indian Illegally Occupied Jammu and Kashmir (IIOJK) to liberate their Muslim brothers and help the region join Pakistan, as democratically desired by the people there. This instance also showcases how, sometimes, radicalization or a radical stance is adopted in the face of fascism or tyranny.
In The Absence of A Universal Understanding
The Pakistani state frequently claims that its laws are in line with Islamic teachings and Sharia. Yet, demands for further Islamization continue from various religious and political groups. Why?
A key reason lies in the Munir Commission Report (1954), which highlighted the existence of over 73 sectarian interpretations of Islam in Pakistan. This diversity is often cited by the state as a reason for avoiding comprehensive Islamic legislation. While there may be an intellectual challenge in reconciling these variants, the issue is mostly used as a rhetorical excuse rather than a sincere obstacle. Contrary to this narrative, Pakistan’s leading ulema once agreed on 22 points outlining a shared Islamic framework. This proves that consensus is possible.
However, when the state refuses to recognize or standardize any variant, people begin to impose their interpretations, often resulting in radicalization and sectarian conflict. In the absence of clear direction, ideological chaos fills the void.
General Zia’s Islamization Policies
With General Zia-ul-Haq’s coming into power, he introduced the state machinery to Islamization. This new policy resulted in the radicalization of the national curriculum. Instead of the subject of “Dinya’at” (the knowledge about religions) being taught, it was replaced by “Islamia’at” (the study of only Islam). This move had huge consequences. In a country that was very ethnically diverse and multi-religious, the minorities were suddenly left out of the national curriculum. Pakistani-ness became associated with an extremist form of Islam.
A closer look at the syllabus of Pakistan Studies and Islamiat revealed a state-sponsored ideology that was implanted in the minds of an entire generation of school children and college graduates during Zia’s regime. A security doctrine was incorporated into the syllabus, supporting the idea of Jihad. At that time, the Afghan Jihad was occurring in Afghanistan, where Mujahideen were fighting the Soviet forces. It helped to radicalize these fighters and also encouraged the public to support these ambitions. Dr. Ayesha Siddiqa states, “Historically, our fields of humanities were negatively influenced due to the predominance of national security and the subservience of education to the security discourse.”
Even after the withdrawal of the Soviet Union from Afghanistan, Pakistan continued to face terrorism from militant groups which had been trained, both ideologically and physically, on this syllabus, for Jihad. Minorities, both cultural and religious, have especially suffered due to this educational marginalization and faced discrimination. The outcome was a shattered national unity and social fabric. However, the Pakistani Government has sought to make some changes to the syllabus, but these have been met with criticism. Nevertheless, it represents a positive step towards revising the curriculum.
Socio-Economic Disillusionment and Identity Crisis:
Although socio-economic factors are discussed less often when it comes to radicalization, they might be the most significant contributor. The Relative Deprivation Theory (RDT) posits that when individuals and groups perceive a discrepancy in their expectations and actual conditions, they become radicalized. These feelings of deprivation can stem from economic, social, or political factors, which can foster resentment and frustration. In areas where conflict already exists, these feelings can escalate into violence. Heightened economic inequality, especially, could lead to terrorism.
Source: theborgenproject
In Pakistan, research has found a link between poverty and support for militant organizations. Individuals afflicted with economic deprivation are more likely to be recruited by militant groups that they believe could provide them with social services or political representation. To root out radicalization from Pakistan completely, it is necessary to consider and address these socio-economic disparities.
However, on its own, economic deprivation is not sufficient to explain why many choose to join terrorist groups. In Pakistan, there are societal divisions along ethnic, religious, and sectarian lines. In the absence of a unified identity to which they could turn, this led to an identity crisis. Extremist groups exploit this weakness and promise disillusioned youth a sense of belonging and purpose. Marginalized individuals are thus more likely to join because they may feel like their group identity is already under threat, and they must take some measures to protect it. By adopting a radical mindset, these individuals find a way to respond to perceived injustices and opposition from rival sects.
The Weaponization of Faith
In Pakistan, the systematic politicization and weaponization of religious ideology for political and strategic goals has led to radicalization becoming embedded in the country’s social fabric. Religious organizations have been used by governments, whether democratic or not, to further domestic and foreign policies, especially regarding countering ethno-nationalist movements conducting proxy wars in Afghanistan and Indian Illegally Occupied Jammu and Kashmir (IIOJK). This militarization of religion has rooted a militant network in Pakistani society.
Conclusion
Radicalization in Pakistan is a nuanced phenomenon, resulting from the interplay of multiple factors. Economic deprivation, exclusive syllabi, weak institutions, and governmental oversight have all contributed to radicalization. Weaponization of faith has then further pushed it into the realm of terrorism and violence. To counter the rise of extremist ideologies, the Pakistani Government needs to understand these dynamics and introduce effective strategies that would contribute to social cohesion. Introducing grassroots policies, inclusive education, and addressing economic grievances is essential for any meaningful progress and in reducing radicalization in the country.
References
- Javed, A., Elahi, N., & Nawab, B. (2025). Exploring the dynamics of radicalization in Pakistan: A comprehensive analysis. SAGE Open, 15(1), Article e21582440251326872.
- Saeed, M. (2013). Impact of radical Islamisation of education on Pakistani society: A qualitative study. Journal of Research and Reflections in Education, 7(2), 125–134.
- Saigol, R. (2010). Radicalization of state and society in Pakistan [PDF].
